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Table 2 Summary of neurodevelopmental animal model behavioral studies using environmental enrichment paradigm

From: Using animal models of enriched environments to inform research on sensory integration intervention for the rehabilitation of neurodevelopmental disorders

Study

Diagnostic/Behavior impairment

Animal model

Enriched condition

Behavioral outcomes measured

Findings

Schneider et al. (2006)

Autism

VPA rats (male only)

Large cage (60 × 60 × 40 cm); stimulating materials including swings and wheel runners, materials changed every two days

Nocioception, Tactile threshold, Sensorimotor gating, locomotor activity, repetitive/stereotypic behavior, exploratory activity, social behavior, social (play behavior), anxiety related behavior

Exposure to enriched condition normalized response to pain, reduced tactile hypersensitivity, stronger acoustic pre-pulse inhibition, lower locomotor activity, reduced stereotypic behaviors, enhanced exploratory activity, decreased anxiety, increased social behavior.

Restivo et al. (2005)

Fragile X

FMR1-KO mice

Exposure to two enriched cages, variety of toys and materials presented including, climbing structure and running wheel. Materials changed every three days.

Open field exploration, object habituation, hyperactivity

Enrichment reduced anxiety-like behaviors in open field and restored object habituation. No effect of enriched condition on hyperactivity.

Kondo et al. (2008)

Rett Syndrome

MeCP2tm1Tam mice

Larger home cages with a variety of objects and running wheels. Objects changed every two days.

Motor coordination, Locomotor activity

Environmental enrichment improved motor coordination prevented progressive coordination deficit from developing in female mice only.

Nag et al. (2009)

Rett Syndrome

MeCP21lox mice (male only)

Larger housing (470 mm × 250 mm × 210 mm), variety of objects including climbing structure and running wheel. Objects changed weekly.

Locomotor activity, Balance and motor coordination, Fear conditioning

Environmental enrichment improved locomotor activity and showed a trend towards improving freezing responses to contextual fear. No effects on motor coordination or cued fear conditioning were found.

Lonetti et al. (2010)

Rett Syndrome

MeCP2 mice

Not described

Motor coordination, motor learning, anxiety-related behavior

Enrichment ameliorated motor coordination and motor learning deficits in males. Reduced memory deficits and anxiety related behavior in females.

Martinez-Cue et al. (2002)

Down Syndrome

Ts65Dn mice

Larger cage (42 × 50 × 20 cm) with climbing ladder, running wheel, and toys which were changed every three days. Foods of different tastes were added with varying degrees of difficulty to acquire them.

Spontaneous activity, Exploratory behavior, Spatial memory

Environmental enrichment increased exploratory behavior for male and female Ts65Dn mice. Improved spatial learning was observed for females only.

Martinez-Cue et al. (2005)

Down Syndrome

Ts65Dn mice (male only)

Enrichment in standard housing with 2-3 mice per cage with toys, bedding, and increasing challenges to find food.

Aggressive behavior, Anxiety-related behavior, Spatial learning

Performance was deteriorated in Ts65Dn mice exposed to the social enrichment condition.

Enrichment in social condition with 8-10 animals per large cage (42 × 50 × 20 cm). Activity wheel and swing were provided as were increased challenges to find food.

Hannigan et al. (1993)

FASD

Rats prenatally exposed to alcohol

Housed 8 per cage in large arena (1 × 1 × .6 m). A variety of toys/materials were provided and changed every 3 days. Animals handled daily.

Motor coordination (gait), Spatial memory

Environmental enrichment ameliorated ataxic gait patterns’ and improved spatial learning in rats exposed prenatally to alcohol.

Wainwright et al. (1993)

FASD

Rats prenatally exposed to alcohol

Housed 12 per cage in larger cages (61 × 61 × 30 cm). Toys were changed every second day and the environment afforded opportunities to climb and dig.

Spatial Learning

Improved speed of learning in enriched animals.

Powell et al. (2000)

Stereotyped Behavior

Deer Mice (Permoyscus maniculatus)

Larger more complex housing (609 × 480 × 100 cm) equipped with bedding, mesh cylinders and places to hide.

Exhibition of stereotyped behaviors

Exposure to enriched housing condition reduced the amount of spontaneous stereotyped behavior exhibited in the mice.

Turner et al. (2003)

Stereotyped Behavior

Deer Mice (Permoyscus maniculatus)

Larger multi-compartment housing with ramps bedding, running wheel, shelter and toys. Objects changed on weekly basis. Bird seed scattered to encourage foraging behaviors.

Exhibition of stereotyped behaviors

Enriched mice exhibited significantly less stereotypic behavior than standard-cage mice.

Morley-Fletcher et al. (2003)

Prenatal Stress

Rats prenatally exposed to stress

Larger paired housing (40 × 25 × 30 cm) with a variety of materials, suspended objects, and a wheel. Objects were changed two times per week.

Social interaction, Social (play) behaviors

Following enrichment, rats prenatally exposed to stress showed increased play behavior and reduced hormonal stress levels.

Laviola et al. (2004)

Prenatal Stress

Rats prenatally exposed to stress

Larger social housing (40 × 25 × 30 cm) with a variety of materials, climbing platforms, and a wheel. Objects were changed every three days.

Exploratory behavior, social interaction/play behavior

Enriched housing increased play behavior in prenatally stressed rats. No improvements in exploratory behavior were noted.

Qian et al. (2008)

Prenatal Stress

Rats prenatally exposed to stress

Larger cages (80 × 60 × 40 cm) with 10 rats per cage. Cages equipped with wheel, shelter, toys, swings and tunnels. Tosy and materials changed once per week.

Fearful behavior

Reduced fearfulness seen in animals exposed to enriched environment.

  1. VPA valproic acid; KO knock out; FASD Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder