Table 2 Studies Examining STM Skills in Individuals with DS Organized by Age Group and Presented Chronologically
Study | Comparison Group | Matching Assessment | CA of DS Group (Yrs) | MA of DS Group | Tasks | Findings |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Valencia-Naranjo 2017 [83] | CA & MA-matched FXS | K-BIT | M=4.29 | -- | Verbal and Visual STM 1 Story Recall Object Recall | DS< FXS DS< FXS |
School Age and Adolescent Studies (6 to 17 years old) | ||||||
Study | Comparison Group | Matching Assessment | CA of DS Group (Yrs) | MA of DS Group | Tasks | Findings |
Dodd 1975 [166] | ID | -- | M=9.1 | -- | Verbal STM Real & Nonsense Word Discrimination (0, 15, and 30 second delays) | DS>ID - Recognition on 0 and 30 sec delay; DS<ID Recall on 15 and 30 sec delay |
McDade 1980 [167] | CA-matched TD MA-matched TD | SB | M~10 | Range= 3.5 – 5.5 | Verbal STM Digit Span Recall Verbal Recognition Test (forced choice recognition on a word recall task) | DS < TD-MA < TD-CA DS < TD-CA; DS ~ TD-MA |
Strattford 1982 [168] | TD & ID | SB & PPVT | M=10.6 (SD=3.92) | M=4.9 | Visual STM Immediate design reproduction | DS < TD; DS~ID |
Snart 1982 [169] | ID group & IQ-matched TBI | SB WISC-R | M=16.3 DS & control (Range = 9-22) | -- | Verbal STM Auditory Serial Recall | DS< ID and TBI on successive auditory recall factor score |
Marcell 1988 [170] | VMA-matched TD ID group | PPVT | M=16.75 | M=4.89 | Verbal STM Digit Span – Auditory Freefield (traditional) Auditory presentation with headphones Auditory presentation with participants wearing goggles (to reduce distraction) Visual/Verbal STM Digits presented visually, recalled orally | DS< TD-MA, ID DS< TD-MA, ID DS< TD-MA, ID DS~ TD-MA, ID |
Bower 1994 [88] | IQ and CA matched ID | -- | Range=5-18 | M=4.6 | Verbal STM Digit Recall Sentence Recall | DS < ID DS < ID |
Kay-Raining 1994 [171] | MA-matched TD | SB | M=14 | Â | Verbal STM Digit Span Recall | DS < TD-MA |
Wang 1994 [89] | IQ & CA matched WS group | WISC-R | M=15.4 | -- | Verbal & Spatial STM Digit Span Corsi Block Recall | DS < WS DS > WS |
Cornish 1999 [95] | CA-matched TD, MA-matched TD, FXS | -- | M=10.82 (SD=1.89) | M=5.10 (SD=1.21) | Visual STM K-ABC Spatial Memory Task | DS < FXS, TD-CA& TD-MA |
Munir 2000 [58] | MA-matched TD, CA-matched TD and FXS | BPVS | M= 11.17 (2.49) | M=6.09 | Verbal & Visual STM Children’s Nonword Repetition Task WISC-III Forward Digit Span Kaufman Spatial Location Recall | DS >FXS; DS ~ TD-MA & TD-CA DS ~ FXS; DS <TD-MA & TD-CA DS > FXS; DS < TD MA & TD-CA |
Seung 2000 [26] | NVMA-matched TD MLU controls | SB NV subtests for NVMA TD group | M=16.4 (Range=9-24) | M=5.58 | Verbal STM ITPA Forward Digit Span Length | DS < TD-NVMA DS ~ MLU |
Kanno 2002 [172] | TD (with similar MA) | -- | M=16.10 (SD=1.64) | M=6.02 | Verbal STM Serial Recall of words | DS < TD-MA |
Jarrold 2002 [49] | ID group VMA-matched TD | BPVS | M=14.28 (Range=8-17) | M=5.09 | Verbal & Spatial STM Digit Span Recall +/- visual support Corsi Span Recall | DS < Combined ID & TD-VMA comparison group DS ~ Combined ID & TD-VMA comparison group |
Laws 2002 [147] | VMA-matched TD | BPVS-II | M=11.1 (Range=7-17) | M=4.0 | Verbal, Visual, & Spatial STM Digit Span Recall Corsi Span Recall Color Memory | DS < TD-VMA DS > TD-VMA DS< TD-VMA on focal colors DS ~ TD-VMA on non-focal colors |
Byrne 2002 [60] | Reading Matched TD Average readers TD | BAS Word Reading | M=8 | M=6.3 | Verbal & Visual STM BAS Digit Recall BAS Immediate Visual Recall | DS < TD-RM < TD-AR DS < TD-RM & TD-AR |
Eadie 2002 [127] | SLI group TD group matched on MLU | -- | M=7.2 | -- | Verbal STM Sentence repetition | DS < TD-MLU; DS ~ SLI |
Pennington 2003 [9] | MA-matched TD | DAS | M=14 (Range=11-19) | M=4.5 | Verbal STM Digit Recall | DS <TD-MA |
Vicari 2004 [96] | MA-matched TD; MA & CA matched WS | SB | M=13.4 (SD=4.4) | M=5.2 | Verbal & Visual STM Digit Forward Span Test Spatial Forward Span Test | DS < WS; DS < TD-MA DS ~ WS; DS < TD-MA |
Lanfranchi 2004 Study 1 [115] | MA-matched TD | Logical Operations Test | M=11.75 (Range = 7-16) | M=5.42 | Verbal STM Word Span Recall | DS < TD-MA |
Lanfranchi 2004 Study 2 [115] | MA-matched TD | Logical Operations Test | M=14.5 (Range= 11-18) | M=4.5 | Visual STM Memory for Positions Pathway Forwards (recall of sequenced moves) | DS ~ TD-MA DS ~ TD-MA |
Seung 2004 [174] | MA-matched TD, MLU | -- | M=17.1 (SD=4.4) | M=5.8 | Verbal STM SB Sentence memory subtest | DS < TD MA DS ~ MLU |
Fidler 2005 [173] | NV IQ-matched ID | K-BIT | M=13.25 (Range=7-21) | --- | Verbal STM Number Sequential Recall | DS<ID |
Brock 2005 [175] | TD group Groups similar on BPVS, though not explicitly matched | -- | M=17.6 (Range=8-25) | M=7.1 | Verbal STM Digit Span recall Digit Reconstruction recall (pointing to numbers) | DS<TD DS<TD |
Cairns 2005 [176] | VMA-matched TD | BPVS | M=15.43 (Range=12-19) | M=5.16 | Verbal STM Word & Nonword Repetition Digit Span Recall | DS<TD-VMA DS<TD-VMA |
Hick 2005 [177] | NVMA-matched SLI NVMA-matched TD | Leiter | M=9.75 | M=4.5 | Verbal & Visual STM Digit Span Recall Word Span Recall Pattern Recall | DS < TD-NVMA, DS ~SLI DS < TD-NVMA, DS ~ SLI DS~SLI~TD-NVMA Verbal STM Tasks – SLI made progress over time that was not seen in DS |
Vicari 2006 [178] | MA-matched TD | SB | M=15.83 (SD=5.66) | M=5.16 | Visual & Spatial STM Spatial Location Span Visual Span | DS < TD-MA DS < TD-MA |
Visu-Petra 2007 [120] | MA-matched TD | SB | M=14 (R=8-21) | M=5.75 | Spatial STM CANTAB Spatial Span Task | DS ~ TD-MA (TD-MA> DS trend) |
Keller-Bell 2007 [179] | NVMA-matched TD | Columbia Mental Maturity Scale | M=9.40 (Range=5-12) | M=4.65 | Verbal STM Nonword Repetition task | DS < TD-NVMA |
Lanfranchi, 2009 [142] | MA-matched TD | PPVT-Revised and RCM | M=12.5 (Range=7-17) | M=6.0 | Visual STM Pathway Recall Positions Recall | DS ~ TD-MA DS < TD-MA |
Frenkel 2009 [87] | MA-matched TD | K-ABC | M=12 (Range=6-17) | M=5.01 | Verbal, & Spatial STM Auditory Word Span Task Visual Patterns Task Corsi Block Recall Task | DS < TD-MA DS < TD-MA DS ~ TD-MA |
Kogan 2009 [97] | FXS group VMA-matched TD CA-matched TD | PPVT- III | M=17.16 (Range=11-36) | M=6.35 | Visual & Spatial STM Delayed-non-matching-to-sample Delayed-non-matching-to-position (spatial) | DS~FXS~TD-VMA DS ~ FXS; DS < TD-CA |
Cardoso-Martins 2009 [180] | MA-matched TD | DAS | M=14.48 | -- | Verbal & Spatial STM Digit Span Corsi Blocks Recall | DS< TD-MA DS~TD-MA |
Lanfranchi 2009 [117] | VMA matched TD Verbal matched TD | PPVT-R and WPPSI Verbal | M=13.1 (Range=8-19) | M=4.11 | Verbal & Spatial STM Word Span Path Recall | DS< TD-VMA & TD-verbal matched DS~TD-VMA & TD-verbal matched |
Abdelhameed 2010 [181] | MA-matched TD | SB-4 | M=9.94 (Range=7-13) | M=3.94 | Verbal STM Digit Span Recall Nonword Repetition | DS < TD-MA DS < TD-MA on all syllable lengths |
Carretti 2010 [182] | MA-matched TD | PPVT | M=7.6 (SD=2.2) | M=5.2 | Visual STM Spatial Recall – Structured Pattern Spatial Recall – Random Pattern | DS < TD-MA DS < TD-MA |
Edgin 2010 [25] | IQ matched WS group | WASI | M=17.8 (Range=13-23) | -- | Verbal & Spatial STM Digit Span Recall Corsi Block Recall | DS<WS DS > WS |
Duarte 2011 [183] | MA-matched TD VMA-TD | PPVT | M=12.5 (Range=7-18) | M=4.0 | Verbal & Spatial STM Digit Span Recall Corsi Span Task | DS < TD-MA & TD-VMA DS < TD-MA; DS ~TD-VMA Also manipulated input & output (verbal vs. visual) of information to be recalled in novel tasks & added spatial support to a visual task. Reported that DS group showed similar performance in pure verbal and verbal-visual tasks. DS group did perform better on visual task with additional spatial support. |
Costanzo 2013 [90] | WS group NVMA-matched TD | Leiter-Revised or SB (1 child matched with SB, all others matched on Leiter-R) | M=14.5 (Range=8-21) | M=6.2 | Verbal & Spatial STM Digit Span Recall Nonword Repetition Corsi Span Task | DS < WS & TD-NVMA DS < WS & TD- NVMA DS & WS < TD- NVMA; DS ~ WS |
Carney 2013 [92] | WS group TD participants with similar MA | SB Abbreviated Battery | M=14.5 (Range=10-21) | M=6.0 | Verbal & Spatial STM Word List Recall Block Recall | DS~WS~TD DS ~ TD; DS & TD> WS DS Group– Visuospatial > Verbal |
Carretti 2013 [94] | VMA-matched TD | PPVT-Revised | M=14.17 (Range=9-17) | M=5.17 | Spatial STM Spatial-Sequential Test Spatial-Simultaneous Test | DS ~ TD-VMA DS < TD-VMA |
Lanfranchi 2014 [93] | MA-matched TD | Logical Operations Test | M=15.66 (SD=3.08) | M=5.75 | Visual STM Picture Span Recall | DS < TD-MA |
Naess 2015 [85] | NVMA-matched TD | WPPSI Block Design | M=6.32 (Range=5-6) | -- | Verbal STM Sentence Memory Nonword Repetition | DS < TD-NVMA DS < TD- NVMA |
Lanfranchi 2015 [184] | MA-matched TD | PPVT-Revised RCM | M=14.17 (Range=9-17) | M=5.17 | Spatial STM Patterned Spatial Recall Random Spatial Recall | DS < TD-MA DS ~ TD-MA |
Loveall 2016 [185] | TD & ID with similar NVMA (measured with the Leiter-R) | Â | M=14.91 | M=5.35 | Verbal STM Nonword repetition | DS < TD-NVMA & ID group |
Danielsson 2016 [91] | MA-matched WS MA-matched TD | SB-abbrev. | M=14.6 (Range=10-21) | M=5.9 | Verbal & Spatial STM Word List Recall Block Recall | DS ~WS; DS & WS < TD-MA DS >WS; DS ~ TD-MA |
Heimann 2016 [61] | TD Language matched ASD | -- | M=5.25 (SD=1.03) | M=2.63 | Visual STM Immediate Elicited Imitation | DS > ASD; DS~TD |
Adult and Older adult studies (18 years and older) | ||||||
Study | Comparison Group | Matching Assessment | CA of DS Group (Yrs) | MA of DS Group | Tasks | Findings |
Dalton 1974 [159] | Young & Old ID | -- | Young M= 20.9 Intermediate M=41.7 | -- | Verbal STM Digit Span | Young & Intermediate DS < Old ID |
Thase 1984 [186] | ID | -- | M=37.1 (SD=10.4) | -- | Verbal & Visual STM Digit Span Delayed Matching to Sample | DS < ID DS < ID |
Huang 1987 [109] | CA & MA matched ID | -- | M=38.65 | -- | Verbal & Visual STM Digit Span Picture recall | DS ~ ID Adults with DS were more likely to recall a picture in a series of black and white pictures orally if it was in color. |
Varnhagen 1987 [64] | CA & IQ matched ID group | SB | M=22.70 (Range=19-25) | M=4.78 | Verbal STM Auditory Span Recall | DS~ID, but DS group had marginally worse lexical access and did not demonstrate acoustic similarity effect seen in ID group |
Marcell 1988 [84] | ID group VMA-matched TD | PPVT | M=18.12 | M=4.98 | Verbal STM Digit Span Recall (with presentation [auditory vs. visual] and recall [oral vs. manual] differences) | DS< TD-VMA; DS~ID on overall performance collapsed across conditions DS< ID on auditory recall (collapsed across output conditions) TD-VMA & ID: Auditory > Visual Performance DS: Auditory ~ Visual Performance |
Marcell 1992 [187] | IQ-matched ID group | SB | M=18.84 | -- | Verbal STM Digit Span Recall Sentence Recall | DS < ID DS < ID |
Devenny 1992 [161] | ID < 35 ID > 35 | -- | <35 M=31.7 >35 M=41.8 | -- | Visual STM Visual Memory Test | >35 DS showed greater decreases in performance at 5 and 10 second delays compared to their performance at 0 second delays than any other participant group |
Marcell 1995 [188] | CA & IQ matched ID | SB | M = 18.83 (SD=3.33) | -- | Verbal STM Sentence Repetition Digit Span | DS < ID on number of sentences repeated and number of words recalled across sentences DS < ID |
Devenny 1996 [65] | Young DS (CA 30-39) Middle-Aged DS (CA 40-49) Older DS (CA 50+) ID group with similar IQ & Age | Subtests of WISC-R used to estimate IQ | Young DS M=37 Middle-Aged DS M=45 Older DS M=55 | Â | Visual LTM Delayed Match to Sample | Participants tested at 6 time points across 5 years DS~ID, but DS showed decrements with increased delay Young ~ Middle-Aged ~ Older DS *Note: This study focused on a more mildly impacted subgroup of adults with DS |
Vicari 2000 [36] | MA-matched TD | SB | M=21 | M=6.5 | Verbal & Visual STM Word List Recall Word Recognition Picture Recognition | DS<TD-MA DS<TD-MA DS<TD-MA |
Natsopoulos 2002 [189] | VMA-matched TD | WPPSI-R Information, Vocabulary & Similarities subtest | M=30.6 (Range=19-39) | -- | Verbal STM Sentence Repetition | DS < TD-VMA |
Brock 2004 [99] | TD group with similar BPVS MA, but not explicitly matched | -- | M=18.5 (Range=12-25) | M=7.7 | Verbal STM Digit Span Recall Word and Nonword Order & Item Recall Memory | DS < TD DS < TD |
Kittler 2004 [190] | IQ-Matched ID | WAIS-R or SB | M=44.8 | M=6.57 (PPVT-R) | Verbal STM Word List Recall | DS < ID on all lists except phonologically similar words; semantic similarity of words reduced DS performance only |
Purser 2005 [107] | TD group with similar NVMA | -- | M=19.78 | M=8.02 | Verbal & Visual STM Word List Recall Picture Location Recall | DS < TD DS ~ TD |
Kittler 2006 [102] | IQ and VMA-matched ID group | WAIS-R and PPVT | M=44.3 | M=6.52 | Verbal STM Word List Recall | DS < ID |
Kittler 2008 [103] | MA- matched WS and ID group | -- | M=44.7 (SD=7.2) | -- | Verbal & Visual STM Digit Span Word Span Corsi Span | DS < WS; DS ~ ID DS < WS & ID DS > ID and DS>~WS (p=.057) |
Jarrold 2009 [191] | TD group with similar NVMA | -- | M=20.82 (Range=14-29) | M=7.33 (PPVT) | Verbal STM Serial Recall Serial Recognition | DS < TD DS < TD |
Lee 2010 [98] | VMA-matched TD | PPVT | M=19.18 (Range=11-25) | M=6.95 | Verbal STM Digit Span Recall | DS < TD-VMA |
Mosse 2011 [192] | VMA-matched TD | BPVS | M=19.5 (Range=9-28) | -- | Verbal STM Immediate serial recall | DS < TD-VMA |
Roch 2012 [122] | Reading comprehension matched TD (CAM) | Standardized test of reading comprehension (administered collectively) | M~18.5 (Range=11-26) | -- | Verbal STM Sequential word recall Sequential word recall with visual presentation | DS < TD-CAM DS ~ TD-CAM |
Michael 2012 [193] | VMA-matched TD | PPVT-4th Edition | M=18.9 (Range=11-32) | -- | Verbal STM Digit Span Recall Word Span Recall Sentence Memory Nonverbal Digit Span Recall Nonverbal Word Span Recall Nonverbal Spatial Memory (*Nonverbal tasks involved pointing to answers on page) | DS~TD-VMA DS~ TD-VMA DS< TD-VMA DS~ TD-VMA DS~ TD-VMA DS~TD-VMA |
Purser 2013 [100] | NVMA- matched TD VMA-matched TD | BPVS- II, RCM | M=19.4 (Range=13-26) | M= 7.9 (BPVS-II) | Verbal STM Word List recognition | DS < TD-NVMA & TD-VMA |
Smith 2014 [101] | VMA-matched TD | BPVS-II | M=20 (Range=9-30) | -- | Verbal STM Word Recall Word Order Recall | DS < TD-VMA DS < TD-VMA |
Belacchi 2014 [108] | NVMA and SES matched TD | RCM | M=18.8 (Range=15-29) | MA~5.5 | Verbal & Visual STM Word Recall Spatial-simultaneous Recall | DS< TD-NVMA DS ~ TD-NVMA |
Stavroussi 2016 [104] | CA & VMA ID group | PPVT-R | M=33.92 (Range=26-38) | -- | Verbal STM Digit Span Recall | DS ~ ID |
Reid 2017 [105] | Cornelia de Lange Syndrome group (CdLS) | -- | M= 24.38 (SD=5.82) | M=6.29 (BPVS) | Verbal & Visual STM Digit Span Corsi Span | DS > CdLS DS > CdLS |
Within DS Group Comparisons of Older Adults | ||||||
Study | Comparison Group | Matching Assessment | CA of DS Group (Yrs) | MA of DS Group | Tasks | Findings |
Haxby 1989 [163] | Under 35 DS 35+ DS (4 with dementia) | -- | Under 35 M=26 (Range=19-34) 35+ non-demented M=48 (Range=37-54) 35+ demented M=57 (Range= 47-64) | Under 35 M= 6.1 35+ non-demented M=4.3 35+ demented M=2.5 (SB used to measure MA) | Verbal & Visual STM Digit Span Recall Block Tapping Span Object Pointing Span | 35+ demented < 35+ nondemented & Under 35 35+ demented < Under 35 on Block Tapping Span & Object Pointing Span |
Alexander 1997 [66] | Young DS (CA 22-39) Old DS (CA 40-61) without dementia | -- | Young DS M=30.1 Old DS M=47.4 | Young DS M=5.7 Old DS M=4.7 (SB used to measure MA) | Verbal & Visual STM Digit Span Recall Hidden object Memory Recall Block Tapping Span | Old DS ~ Young DS Old DS ~ Young DS Old DS < Young DS |
Crayton 1998 [72] | Young DS (CA Under 40) Middle-Aged DS (CA 40-49) Older DS (CA 50+) | -- | -- | M =4.8 (for whole group on BPVS) | Visual STM Matching to Sample | Young DS ~ Middle-Aged DS ~ Older DS |