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Table 5 Association of family related variables with level and change of conversational ELS measures, while controlling for CA, diagnostic group (DS or FXS) and nonverbal cognition

From: Expressive language development in adolescents with Down syndrome and fragile X syndrome: change over time and the role of family-related factors

Variable [β (SE), p]

Syntax complexity

Lexical diversity

Talkativeness

Maternal education

High school

REF

REF

REF

College

0.1 (0.1), p = 0.3

3.3 (7.7), p = 0.7

− 0.4 (1.0), p = 0.7

Advanced degree

0.004 (0.2), p = 0.9

− 1.2 (10.2), p = 0.9

0.4 (1.6), p = 0.8

Maternal education × time

High school

REF

REF

REF

College

0.002 (0.03), p = 0.9

2.8 (3.2), p = 0.4

0.9 (0.3), p = 0.009

Advanced degree

0.05 (0.04), p = 0.2

4.6 (2.9), p = 0.1

− 0.4 (0.5), p = 0.4

Paternal education

High school

REF

REF

REF

College

− 0.2 (0.2), p = 0.3

− 10.9 (10.7), p = 0.3

− 0.4 (1.1), p = 0.7

Advanced degree

0.1 (0.1), p = 0.2

6.7 (8.2), p = 0.4

− 2.9 (1.2), p = 0.02

Paternal education × time

High school

REF

REF

REF

College

0.08 (0.04), p = 0.09

7.6 (3.6), p = 0.04

0.2 (0.4), p = 0.5

Advanced degree

0.003 (0.04), p = 0.9

0.9 (2.8), p = 0.7

0.3 (0.5), p = 0.5

Maternal IQ

0.004 (0.004), p = 0.3

0.1 (0.3), p = 0.7

0.05 (0.04), p = 0.2

Maternal IQ × time

0.0009 (0.001), p = 0.4

0.1 (0.1), p = 0.2

− 0.01 (0.02), p = 0.4

Maternal GSI

− 0.001 (0.004), p = 0.8

0.2 (0.3), p = 0.6

0.04 (0.04), p = 0.3

Maternal GSI × time

0.0004 (0.001), p = 0.8

− 0.1 (0.1), p = 0.3

− 0.0003 (0.02), p = 0.9

Family income

0.01 (0.01), p = 0.2

0.8 (0.8), p = 0.3

− 0.1 (0.1), p = 0.5

Family income × time

0.003 (0.004), p = 0.5

0.5 (0.3), p = 0.1

− 0.01 (0.04), p = 0.8

PAI

− 0.02 (0.01), p = 0.2

− 1.4 (1.1), p = 0.2

0.07 (0.1), p = 0.6

PAI × time

0.003 (0.004), p = 0.4

0.7 (0.3), p = 0.03

− 0.02 (0.04), p = 0.7

  1. Syntax complexity in conversation was transformed with the natural logarithm prior to analysis. Although paternal education has levels with a p value < 0.05, the overall assessment of paternal education with change in lexical diversity (p = 0.1) and with baseline level of talkativeness (p = 0.07) were not significant. Separate models were fit for each family-related variable. The terms with “Time” quantify the average difference in annual change associated with a 1-unit change (or relative to the reference group) in the predictor. Terms without “Time” correspond to associations with baseline levels (“intercept”). All models included baseline CA, diagnosis, their interactions with time, and time-varying Leiter-R GS
  2. REF reference group, GSI general severity index, PAI positive affect index