Table 3 Main effects model results — pooled over studies and testing type (n = 101, 960 repeated observations)

Fixed effects

b

p-value

b_std

 Group (DLD vs. TD)

− 1.40

− 2.48

− 0.32

0.011

− 0.31

 Condition (RSR vs. OL)

1.59

1.19

1.98

0.000

0.35

 Time (1 week vs. 5 min)

− 0.05

− 0.28

0.18

0.652

− 0.01

 Study 2 vs. study 1

− 2.89

− 4.06

− 1.71

0.000

− 0.64

 Study 3 vs. study 1

− 2.20

− 3.38

− 1.01

0.000

− 0.49

 Study 4 vs. study 1

− 0.04

− 1.25

1.17

0.951

− 0.01

 Study 3 vs. study 2

0.69

− 0.45

1.83

0.236

0.15

 Study 4 vs. study 2

2.85

1.53

4.16

0.000

0.63

 Study 4 vs. study 3

2.16

0.61

3.71

0.006

0.48

 Meaning vs. word form

4.43

3.84

5.01

0.000

0.98

 Recognition vs. word form

5.80

5.25

6.36

0.000

1.28

 Meaning vs. recognition

− 1.38

− 2.16

− 0.59

0.001

− 0.30

 PPVT-4

− 0.02

− 0.05

0.02

0.429

0.00

 Mother’s education

0.00

− 0.21

0.22

0.982

0.00

 Number of words tested

0.58

0.44

0.71

0.000

0.13

 Intercept

1.15

− 4.20

6.49

Random effects

σ²

 Condition

2.87

1.84

4.49

 Meaning

5.33

3.55

7.99

 Recognition

3.28

2.07

5.21

 Intercept

3.99

2.80

5.71

 Residual

2.77

2.44

3.14