Fig. 2

Composition of the upper cortical layers. a–d Satb2-positive neurons are predominantly in the upper layers of the neocortex. e Loss of Satb2+ cells throughout all layers in TSC cortical tubers. f–h Expression of Satb2 in dysmorphic neurons (arrows in f and g) and giant cells (arrows in h) of cortical tubers. i–l Normal distribution of Cux2 expressing cells in the control cortex. m Cux2+ cells throughout all layers in TSC cortical tubers. n–p Expression of Cux2 in dysmorphic neurons (arrows in n and o) and giant cells (arrows in p) of cortical tubers. Scale bar in m equals 500 μm and applies also to a, e, and I. Scale bar in p equals 200 μm and applies also to b–d, f–h, j–l, and n–l. q Quantitative analysis of Satb2+ neurons revealed significant overall cell loss in all epilepsy surgery specimens. r Relative loss of Satb2+ neurons in TSC tissue. SG supragranular layers, IG infragranular layers, WM white matter, Co control, PLx perilesional cortex, Tb cortical tuber, IIb FCD type IIb