Table 1 Detailed characteristics of the six motor assessments

Peabody Developmental Motor Scale-2 (PDMS-2) [14]

Birth-5 years

45–60 min

Gross and fine motor

Derived from 6 Subtests: Reflexes-reaction to the environment (birth to 11 months)

Stationary-ability to sustain control of body

Locomotion-ability to move from one place to another (crawling, walking, running etc.)

Object manipulation-ability to manipulate balls, Grasping-ability to use hands

Visual motor integration-ability to use visual perceptual skills to perform complex eye-hand coordination tasks.

Results of subtests generate three composites:

Gross motor quotient (GMQ) (reflexes, stationary, locomotion, object manipulation)

Fine motor quotient (FMQ) (grasping, visual-motor integration)

Total Motor Quotient (TMQ)

Scored 0–2

0: will not/cannot attempt item

1: performance shows clear resemblance to mastery criteria but does not fully meet criteria

2: child performs item according to criteria specified for mastery

Basal level: score of 2 on three items in a row

Ceiling level: score of 0 on three items in a row

Normative sample collected in 1998 on 2003 kids in 46 states in the United States (US) and one Canadian province. Normative sample matched U.S. Bureau of the Census in 1997 with regard to geographic region, gender, race, residence, ethnicity, and socioeconomic status.

Inter-rater reliability: GMQ (r = 0.97), FMQ (r = 0.98), TMQ (r = .96)

Test-retest reliability:

GMQ (r = 0.93), FMQ (r = 0.94), TMQ (r = 0.96)

Construct validity: Supported using confirmatory factor analysis and reported in manual

Concurrent validity

With PDMS: GMQ (r = 0.84), FMQ(r = 0.91)

With MSEL: FMQ (r = 0.86), FMQ (r = 0.80) [14, 43, 44]

22q.11 Deletion [45]

Hemi-facial microsomia [46]

Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development-III [13]

1–42 months

50–90 min

Gross motor: movement of limb and torso, balance, dynamic movement, static position, motor planning

Fine motor: comprehension (grasping), perceptual-motor integration, motor planning and speed, visual tracking, reaching, object grasping, object manipulation, functional hand skills, and responses to tactile information

Other Domains: Cognitive, Language, Socio-emotional, and Adaptive

Scored 0–1

0: Does not complete

1: Able to complete

Normative sample collected in 2004 on 1700 typically developing children in the US ages 16 days–42 months (born between 36 and 42 weeks) 17 different age groups (n = 100 per group). Sample matched the U.S. Bureau of Census in 2000. Sample stratified by age, sex, race/ethnicity, geographic region, and caregiver’s highest education level. 10% of sample: children with mental, physical, and behavioral difficulties.

Inter-rater reliability: FM (0.86), GM (0.91)

Test-retest reliability: FM (r = 0.67), GM (r = 0.94), correlations increased with age)

Construct validity: Insufficient

Concurrent validity:

With PDMS-2: FM&GM (r = 0.49–0.57)

-Angelman syndrome [47, 48]

-Down syndrome [49,50,51]

-Phelan-McDermid (22q13.3 deletion) syndrome [52]

-Williams syndrome [53]

Mullen Scales of Early Learning (MSEL) [11]

Gross Motor: Birth-33 months

Fine Motor: Birth-68 Months

15 min (1 year); 25–35 min (3 years); 40–60 min (5 years)

Gross and fine motor

Other subdomains: visual reception, receptive language, expressive language (later four combined to yield the early learning composite)

Varies by item, from 0 to 5 points. Majority of items with 0–1 scoring.

0: correct response

1: incorrect response

Basal level: score of 1 on three consecutive items

Ceiling level: score of 0 on three consecutive items

Normative sample collected on 1849 children between 2 days and 69 months, grouped into 16 age groups at 2-month age intervals. Sample representative of 1990 US Census data based on gender, race, SES, geographic region, and community size. Children with disabilities were excluded

Inter-rater reliability: Gross motor 0–24 months (r = 0.92–0.97), fine motor 0–44 months (r = 0.91–0.99)

Test-retest reliability: Gross motor (r = 0.96), fine motor (r = 0.83)

Construct validity: Confirmed via developmental progression of scores, intercorrelations, and principal factor analysis

Concurrent validity with

Bayley Scales of Infant Development Gross Motor (r = 0.76) Fine Motor (r = 0.21). With PDMS fine motor scale 6–36 months (r = 0.65–0.75)

-Down syndrome [54]

-Fragile X [55,56,57,58,59]

-Tuberous sclerosis complex [60,61,62]

-Dup15q syndrome [9]

-Williams syndrome [63]

Movement Assessment Battery for Children-2 (MABC-2, age band 1) [16]

3-6 years

20–30 min

Gross and fine motor

Manual dexterity: Posting coins, pegboard, threading bead, bicycle trails

Aiming and catching: aiming and catching bean bag or tennis ball

Balance: ability to balance on one leg for 30 s, able to walk on tip toes and tandem

Each item is rated on a 6-point scale 5: weakest performance and 0: best performance.

Total test score derived from component scores and translated into percentile rank for each component and overall

Authors assumed reliability and validity data for MABC is generalizable to MABC-2

Normative sample for MABC-2 collected in a group of 1172 children in the United Kingdom (UK) between the ages of 3:0 and 16:11. Sample representative of UK Census in 2001. 48.3% males and 51.7% females

Limited information in manual on reliability and validity for age band 1.

Inter-rater reliability: Not available for MABC-2

Test-retest reliability: Total of 60 children, 20 from each age band. Total test score (r = 0.80)

Construct validity: Not available for MABC-2

Concurrent validity: Not available for MABC-2 [16, 18]

-Down syndrome [64, 65]

-Turner syndrome [66, 67]

-22q11.2 Deletion [68]

Bruininks–Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency-2 (BOT-2) [23]

4–21 years

10 min set up, 40–60 min for long form, 5 min set-up, 15–20 min for short form

Gross and fine motor:

Four Motor Area Composites:

Fine manual control: control and coordination of the distal musculature of the hands and fingers involved in writing and drawing

Manual coordination: control and coordination of the arms and hands, especially for object manipulation and with emphasis on speed, and dexterity

Body coordination: control and coordination of the large musculature used in maintaining posture and balance

Strength and agility: control and coordination of the large musculature involved in locomotion in sports.

Results of composites generate: Total Motor Composite

Scoring varies per item which ranges from a 2- to 13-point scale.

Raw scores determined by item and multiple trials when allowed. Raw scores reflect variety of possibilities (i.e., number of correct responses, seconds an activity is sustained, specific directions provided).

Subtests and total motor score available as raw score, standard score, percentile rank, and descriptive category (well below average, below average, average, above average, and well above average).

Normative sample of 1520 people 4–21 years old. Stratified across race/ethnicity, socioeconomic status, and disability. Sample representative of 2001 US Census Bureau. Males and females were equally represented. Included children with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, emotional and behavioral disturbance, specific learning disability, mental retardation developmental delay, and speech/language impairment.

Three additional clinical samples identified for standardization: developmental coordination disorder, high-functioning ASD/Asperger’s, and mild to moderate mental retardation

Inter-rater reliability of all subtests: 4–21 years (r = 0.84–0.99)

Test-retest reliability of all subtests: 4–7 years (r = 0.47–0.88), 8–12 years (r = 0.47–0.94), 13–21 years (r = 0.32–0.91)

Construct validity: Rasch and confirmatory factor analysis

Concurrent validity: Total Motor Composite. BOTMP r = 0.76) PDMS (r = 0.77), Test of Visual Motor Skills and BOT-2 Fine Motor Integration Subtest (r = 0.74) [69]

-Down syndrome [70,71,72]

Prader Willi syndrome [73]

-Williams syndrome [74]

-22q11 deletion [45]

Physical and Neurological Examination for Soft Signs (PANESS) [27]

4–15 years

15–20 min

Gross and fine motor:

Total of 43 items in subtests: coordination, graphesthesia, stereognosis, motor tasks, ability to maintain posture, ability to tap fingers and feet in a smooth rhythm, string test (visual tracking of moving string)

Two subscores generated: Gaits and stations and total times. Subscores are summed to provide PANESS total score. [28, 75]

Scored 1–4 or 9

1-Performed correctly

2-Performed not well

3-Performed poorly or after repeated instruction and demonstration

4-Unsuccessful even after repeated demonstrations

9-Not done/not ascertained

-Certain tasks are completed using non-preferred and preferred hand and are timed

Normative sample from 168 elementary aged children with average IQ

Test-retest reliability: Total score: (r = 0.78)

-Moderately reliable in a study conducted by Holden et al.

Validity: has been established with revised versions [29, 76]

-Neurofibromatosis type 1 [77]